1	Chapter 15 AC Fundamentals
2	Alternating Current Voltages of ac sources alternate in polarity and vary in magnitude Voltages produce currents that vary in magnitude and alternate in direction
3	Alternating Current A sinusoidal ac waveform starts at zero Increases to a positive maximum Decreases to zero Changes polarity Increases to a negative maximum Returns to zero Variation is called a cycle
4	Generating AC Voltages
5	Generating AC Voltages
6	AC Voltage-Current Conventions Assign a reference polarity for source When voltage has a positive value Its polarity is same as reference polarity When voltage is negative Its polarity is opposite that of the reference polarity
7	AC Voltage-Current Conventions Assign a reference direction for current that leaves source at positive reference polarity When current has a positive value Its actual direction is same as current reference arrow
8	AC Voltage-Current Conventions When current is negative Its actual direction is opposite that of current reference arrow
9	Frequency Number of cycles per second of a waveform Frequency Denoted by f Unit of frequency is hertz (Hz) 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second
10	Period Period of a waveform Time it takes to complete one cycle Time is measured in seconds The period is the reciprocal of frequency T = 1/f
11	Amplitude and Peak-to-Peak Value Amplitude of a sine wave Distance from its average to its peak We use E_m for amplitude Peak-to-peak voltage Measured between minimum and maximum peaks We use E_pp or V_pp
12	Peak Value Peak value of an ac voltage or current Maximum value with respect to zero If a sine wave is superimposed on a dc value Peak value of combined wave is sum of dc voltage and peak value of ac waveform amplitude
13	The Basic Sine Wave Equation Voltage produced by a generator is e = E_msin a E_m is maximum (peak) voltage a is instantaneous angular position of rotating coil of the generator
14	The Basic Sine Wave Equation Voltage at angular position of sine wave generator May be found by multiplying E_m times the sine of angle at that position
15	Angular Velocity Rate at which the generator coil rotates with respect to time, w (Greek letter omega)
16	Angular Velocity Units for w are revolutions/second, degrees/sec, or radians/sec.
17	Radian Measure w is usually expressed in radians/second 2p radians = 360° To convert from degrees to radians, multiply by p/180
18	Radian Measure To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by 180/p When using a calculator Be sure it is set to radian mode when working with angles measured in radians
19	Relationship between w,T, and f One cycle of a sine wave may be represented by a = 2p rads or t = T sec
20	Voltages and Currents as Functions of Time Since a = wt, the equation e = E_msin a becomes e(t) = E_msin wt Also, v(t) = V_msin wt and i(t) = I_msin wt
21	Voltages and Currents as Functions of Time Equations used to compute voltages and currents at any instant of time Referred to as instantaneous voltage or current
22	Voltages and Currents with Phase Shifts If a sine wave does not pass through zero at t = 0, it has a phase shift For a waveform shifted left v = V_msin(wt + q) For a waveform shifted right v = V_msin(wt - q)
23	Phasors Rotating vectors whose projection onto a vertical or horizontal axis can be used to represent sinusoidally varying quantities
24	Phasors A sinusoidal waveform Produced by plotting vertical projection of a phasor that rotates in the counterclockwise direction at a constant angular velocity w
25	Phasors Phasors apply only to sinusoidally varying waveforms
26	Shifted Sine Waves Phasors used to represent shifted waveforms Angle q is position of phasor at t = 0 seconds
27	Phase Difference Phase difference is angular displacement between waveforms of same frequency If angular displacement is 0° Waveforms are in phase
28	Phase Difference If angular displacement is not 0^o, they are out of phase by amount of displacement
29	Phase Difference If v₁ = 5 sin(100t) and v₂ = 3 sin(100t - 30°), v₁ leads v₂ by 30° May be determined by drawing two waves as phasors Look to see which one is ahead of the other as they rotate in a counterclockwise direction
30	Average Value To find an average value of a waveform Divide area under waveform by length of its base Areas above axis are positive, areas below axis are negative
31	Average Value Average values also called dc values dc meters indicate average values rather than instantaneous values
32	Sine Wave Averages Average value of a sine wave over a complete cycle is zero Average over a half cycle is not zero
33	Sine Wave Averages Rectified full-wave average is 0.637 times the maximum value Rectified half-wave average is 0.318 times the maximum value
34	Effective Values Effective value or RMS value of an ac waveform is an equivalent dc value It tells how many volts or amps of dc that an ac waveform supplies in terms of its ability to produce the same average power
35	Effective Values In North America, house voltage is 120 Vac. Voltage is capable of producing the same average power as a 120 V battery
36	Effective Values To determine effective power Set Power(dc) = Power(ac) P_dc = p_ac I²R = i²R where i = I_msin wt By applying a trigonometric identity Able to solve for I in terms of I_m
37	Effective Values I_eff = .707I_m V_eff = .707V_m Effective value is also known as the RMS value