1	Chapter 16 R,L, and C Elements and the Impedance Concept
2	Introduction To analyze ac circuits in the time domain is not very practical It is more practical to: Express voltages and currents as phasors Circuit elements as impedances Represent them using complex numbers
3	Introduction AC circuits Handled much like dc circuits using the same relationships and laws
4	Complex Number Review A complex number has the form: a + jb, where j = (mathematics uses i to represent imaginary numbers) a is the real part jb is the imaginary part Called rectangular form
5	Complex Number Review Complex number May be represented graphically with a being the horizontal component b being the vertical component in the complex plane
6	Conversion between Rectangular and Polar Forms If C = a + jb in rectangular form, then C = CÐq, where
7	Complex Number Review j ⁰ = 1 j ¹ = j j ² = -1 j ³ = -j j ⁴ = 1 (Pattern repeats for higher powers of j) 1/j = -j
8	Complex Number Review To add complex numbers Add real parts and imaginary parts separately Subtraction is done similarly
9	Review of Complex Numbers To multiply or divide complex numbers Best to convert to polar form first (AÐq)•(BÐf) = (AB)Ð(q + f) (AÐq)/(BÐf) = (A/B)Ð(q - f) (1/CÐq) = (1/C)Ð-q
10	Review of Complex Numbers Complex conjugate of a + jb is a - jb If C = a + jb Complex conjugate is usually represented as C*
11	Voltages and Currents as Complex Numbers AC voltages and currents can be represented as phasors Phasors have magnitude and angle Viewed as complex numbers
12	Voltages and Currents as Complex Numbers A voltage given as 100 sin (314t + 30°) Written as 100Ð30° RMS value is used in phasor form so that power calculations are correct Above voltage would be written as 70.7Ð30°
13	Voltages and Currents as Complex Numbers We can represent a source by its phasor equivalent from the start Phasor representation contains information we need except for angular velocity
14	Voltages and Currents as Complex Numbers By doing this, we have transformed from the time domain to the phasor domain KVL and KCL Apply in both time domain and phasor domain
15	Summing AC Voltages and Currents To add or subtract waveforms in time domain is very tedious Convert to phasors and add as complex numbers Once waveforms are added Corresponding time equation of resultant waveform can be determined
16	Important Notes Until now, we have used peak values when writing voltages and current in phasor form It is more common to write them as RMS values
17	Important Notes To add or subtract sinusoidal voltages or currents Convert to phasor form, add or subtract, then convert back to sinusoidal form Quantities expressed as phasors Are in phasor domain or frequency domain
18	R,L, and C Circuits with Sinusoidal Excitation R, L, and C circuit elements Have different electrical properties Differences result in different voltage-current relationships When a circuit is connected to a sinusoidal source All currents and voltages will be sinusoidal
19	R,L, and C Circuits with Sinusoidal Excitation These sine waves will have the same frequency as the source Only difference is their magnitudes and angles
20	Resistance and Sinusoidal AC In a purely resistive circuit Ohm’s Law applies Current is proportional to the voltage
21	Resistance and Sinusoidal AC Current variations follow voltage variations Each reaching their peak values at the same time Voltage and current of a resistor are in phase
22	Inductive Circuit Voltage of an inductor Proportional to rate of change of current Voltage is greatest when the rate of change (or the slope) of the current is greatest Voltage and current are not in phase
23	Inductive Circuit Voltage leads the current by 90°across an inductor
24	Inductive Reactance X_L, represents the opposition that inductance presents to current in an ac circuit X_L is frequency-dependent X_L = V/I and has units of ohms X_L = wL = 2pfL
25	Capacitive Circuits Current is proportional to rate of change of voltage Current is greatest when rate of change of voltage is greatest So voltage and current are out of phase
26	Capacitive Circuits For a capacitor Current leads the voltage by 90°
27	Capacitive Reactance X_C, represents opposition that capacitance presents to current in an ac circuit X_C is frequency-dependent As frequency increases, X_C decreases
28	Capacitive Reactance X_C= V/I and has units of ohms
29	Impedance The opposition that a circuit element presents to current is impedance, Z Z = V/I, is in units of ohms Z in phasor form is ZÐq q is the phase difference between voltage and current
30	Resistance For a resistor, the voltage and current are in phase If the voltage has a phase angle, the current has the same angle The impedance of a resistor is equal to RÐ0°
31	Inductance For an inductor Voltage leads current by 90° If voltage has an angle of 0° Current has an angle of -90° The impedance of an inductor X_LÐ90°
32	Capacitance For a capacitor Current leads the voltage by 90° If the voltage has an angle of 0° Current has an angle of 90° Impedance of a capacitor X_CÐ-90°
33	Capacitance Mnemonic for remembering phase Remember ELI the ICE man Inductive circuit (L) Voltage (E) leads current (I) A capacitive circuit (C) Current (I) leads voltage (E)