1	Chapter 22 Filters and the Bode Plot
2	Gain Power gain is ratio of output power to input power
3	Gain Voltage gain is ratio of output voltage to input voltage
4	Gain Any circuit in which the output signal power is greater than the input signal Power is referred to as an amplifier Any circuit in which the output signal power is less than the input signal power Called an attenuator
5	Gain Gains are very large or very small Inconvenient to express gain as a simple ratio
6	The Decibel Bel is a logarithmic unit that represents a tenfold increase or decrease in power
7	The Decibel Because the bel is such a large unit, the decibel (dB) is often used
8	The Decibel To express voltage gain in decibels:
9	Multistage Systems To find total gain of a system having more than one stage, each with a gain of A_n Multiply gains together A_T = A₁A₂A₃∙∙∙
10	Multistage Systems If gains are expressed in decibels (which are logarithmic) Gains will add instead of multiplying A_T(dB) = A_1(dB)+ A_2(dB)+ A_3(dB)∙∙∙
11	Voltage Transfer Functions Ratio of output voltage phasor to input voltage phasor for any frequency Amplitude of transfer function is voltage gain
12	Voltage Transfer Functions Phase angle q Represents phase shift between input and output voltage phasors If the circuit contains capacitors or inductors Transfer function will be frequency dependent
13	Transfer Functions To examine the operation of a circuit over a wide range of frequencies Draw a frequency response curve Any circuit which is said to pass a particular range of frequencies Called a filter circuit
14	Transfer Functions By passing a range of frequencies Filter output response is high enough at these frequencies to be usable Common types of filters Low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, and band-reject filters
15	Low-Pass Filter Has a greater gain at low frequencies At higher frequencies the gain decreases Cutoff frequency Occurs when gain drops to ½ power point This is 0.707 of the maximum voltage gain At cutoff Voltage gain is –3dB; phase angle is –45°
16	Bode Plots A Bode plot is a straight-line approximation to the frequency response of a particular filter Abscissa will be the frequency in Hz on a logarithmic scale (base 10)
17	Bode Plots Ordinate will be gain in dB on a linear scale Asymptotes Actual response will approach the straight lines of the Bode approximation
18	Bode Plots A decade represents a tenfold increase or decrease in frequency An octave represents a two-fold increase or decrease in frequency
19	Bode Plots Slopes are expressed in either dB/decade or dB/octave A simple RC or RL circuit will have a slope of 20 dB/decade or 6 dB/octave
20	Writing Voltage Transfer Functions A properly written transfer function allows us to easily sketch the frequency response of a circuit First, determine voltage gain when w = 0 and w ® ¥ (approaches infinity)
21	Writing Voltage Transfer Functions Use voltage divider rule to write the general expression for transfer function in terms of the frequency
22	Writing Voltage Transfer Functions Simplify results into a form containing only terms of jwt or (1 + jwt) Determine break frequencies at w = 1/t
23	Writing Voltage Transfer Functions Sketch straight-line approximation by separately considering the effects of each term of transfer function Sketch actual response freehand from the approximation
24	The RC Low-Pass Filter A series RC circuit with output taken across capacitor is a low-pass filter At low frequencies Reactance is high Output voltage is essentially equal to input
25	The RC Low-Pass Filter At high frequencies Output voltage approaches zero
26	The RC Low-Pass Filter By applying voltage divider rule Determine transfer function
27	The RC Low-Pass Filter The cutoff frequency is
28	The RL Low-Pass Filter Low-pass filter may be made up of a resistor and an inductor Output taken across the resistor Transfer function is
29	The RL Low-Pass Filter Cutoff frequency is
30	The RC High-Pass Filter Simple RC circuit with output taken across resistor is a high-pass filter Transfer function is given by
31	The RC High-Pass Filter Phase shift is q = 90° – tan^-1(w/w_c) Cutoff frequency is
32	The RL High-Pass Filter RL circuit is a high-pass filter if output is taken across the inductor Transfer function is
33	The RL High-Pass Filter Cutoff frequency is
34	The Band-Pass Filter Permits frequencies within a certain range to pass from input to output All frequencies outside this range will be attenuated
35	The Band-Pass Filter One way to build a band-pass filter is to cascade a low-pass filter with a high-pass filter A band-pass filter can also be constructed from an RLC circuit
36	The Band-Reject Filter Passes all frequencies except for a narrow band Can be constructed from an RLC series circuit Taking output across the inductor and capacitor
37	The Band-Reject Filter Can also be constructed from a circuit containing a RC parallel combination in series with a resistor Taking output across the resistor